In a walnut orchard 39 years ago: The beginning of the space age in the Bulgarian Academy of Sciences army

• Place: Walnut orchard near the village of Botevo, Tundzha municipality, Yambol region.
• Time: May 24, 1987, exactly 39 years ago.
• Acting person: me – a rookie officer… lieutenant engineer.

The sun is fighting the dense walnut forest. The birds are welcoming the approaching summer with their songs. The air is fresh. It is lunchtime, but I don’t feel any hunger.

I am sitting on the steps of the space station. The equipment is humming softly behind me. I feel a little sad… My classmates are meeting today at the „Mother Bulgaria“ monument in Veliko Tarnovo to celebrate the 5th anniversary of the graduation of the Second High School „Vasil Drumev“… Where will they continue tonight? We have always been very close and together everywhere, and today I am not there… Will they understand me? After all, it was not by chance that I did not go with them.

At that time, I could neither boast nor even explain why I was not at the meeting. As a colleague says, simply „if the service requires it and does not contradict the statutes…“.

Sad, but happy! Why? Because we had just established

THE FIRST official space connection in the history of the Bulgarian Army.

The exact term is „satellite“, but for some reason „space“ gained greater popularity among us.

Our correspondent was the station of the Navy (VMF), with Chief Lieutenant Commander Emil Popov and Deputy Midshipman Pavel Pavlov (LZ4PV).

My crew was also somewhat thoughtful. These guys were Senior Sergeant Vasil Yordanov Vassilev (LZ3WW – now a reserve sergeant), Senior Sergeant Valentin Stanchev Tsanov (also a reserve), Private Emil Spasov Stoyanov, Private Toni Denchev Iliev and Private Stefan Iliev Stefanov. In just a few months, this crew had become like a well-oiled machine – a real „platoon of excellent guys“. Truly excellent fighters and men with whom we became friends and we can rely on each other.

I was warned that the brigade commander was approaching, along with other of my superiors. I prepared to meet them.

The order that went down in history

They were coming to greet us. The brigade chief of staff read out an order:

„… at 11:50 on May 24, 1987, the crew of the R-440 space station consisting of… established for the FIRST TIME in the history of the Armed Forces…“

I admit, I didn’t listen to the text

I didn’t even hear what the awards were. For me, the important thing was that everything had gone exactly as it should have, that we had succeeded. I was proud of my crew. The credit was shared.

And it wasn’t just my crew’s. I felt immense gratitude to:

• The then Chief of Staff of the battalion – Captain Nikola Lazarov (LZ5NL – now a colonel from the reserve);
• The head of the radio department – ​​Colonel Yanko Nikov (now in a better world);
• His assistant for radio and space communications – Colonel Dimitar Asenov Dimitrov (from the reserve);
• The head of the administration at the time – General Kirov.

The credit was equally due to our correspondents from the Navy, as well as to the people thanks to whom the channels were encrypted and put into use – Senior Sergeant Valentin Alexandrov, Lieutenant Tihomir Todorov and the then head of the department in the CIS management at the General Staff (later Brigadier General) Boyko Simitchiev. The fact that our connection was the first does not in any way diminish the merit of all the other “cosmonauts” (as we were called then) from the Land Forces in Nova Zagora, Suhodol, Plovdiv and Sliven – this was an entire national system for space communication, ensuring communication in the country and with the Supreme Command of the Armed Forces of the Republic of Bulgaria.

I am afraid of missing someone, so I will not list them all, but each of them is in my heart.

These were not just officers and sergeants from the “analog era”. These were the few servicemen at that time who were implementing and using digital communications – people with an innate sense of new technologies.

How the “stiffened” system was broken through

With my current experience (already as a former colonel, although still a teenager at heart), I appreciate what it cost my superiors to ensure this success. The army was an extremely conservative structure at the time, and it was almost absurd to break through with something new. That was the case for many years of my service.
I will never forget the words of one of my superiors when I “made up my mind” to go to a course on space communications (after all, I was one of the first to experience such a technique in person, which I initially understood nothing about):

“Hey, lieutenant, where are you going? At least twenty people in the USSR have already taken such a course! Grab your books and study, the station has documentation…”

Fortunately, there were also superiors who knew that without training there is no implementation. They managed to organize a course here, in Bulgaria, on their own. And the documentation (Soviet production) was fortunately detailed enough.

Where did we start from

To understand what level I was starting from, I will tell you how I found out what position I was assigned to. We were about ten officers, just assigned to the unit. We gathered at the entrance to the Ministry of Defense on Aksakov Street. The personnel officer came and told us to move a little to the side so as not to disturb the people passing by. We went to the then well-known confectionery „Kristal“.

He began to announce who was assigned where. He reached me. He read that I would be the head of… „Kristal“. I looked at him, I looked at the sign on the confectionery, him again, the sign again… The man sensed that something was wrong in my gaze and quickly corrected himself: „Not this one… head of R-440 – Kristal“. Only then did I understand what it was about. I had at least heard about R-440 at the Military School. It turned out that „Kristal“ was simply the conventional name of the station. Today its technical data can now be freely found on the Internet.

Our course was in Plovdiv

We studied, so to speak, together with our teachers. The first unofficial space communications were also carried out near Plovdiv. We were allowed to use a satellite with the conditional number “43”, which we joked about as “Model 43”, because it descended very low to the horizon. But even then we managed to maintain the connection in a mode below the noise level.

Satellite communication has always been an expensive pleasure, but it has enormous advantages. With our space station and the equipment for stable encryption, with a well-trained crew, it was possible to organize a connection to the final correspondents in less than a minute. The quality was measured by the number of errors in six months of continuous operation! It was possible to organize communication below the noise level in the air – practically invisible to enemy intelligence. We also managed to make an encrypted telephone conversation through a communication channel of only 600 bps with guaranteed stability. Anyone who has studied more theory will tell you that this is theoretically impossible. Yes, but we did it practically. An electronic computer constantly monitored the location of the satellites in an elliptical orbit and automatically moved the antenna towards them. Even today, not every modern station has such extras.

Innovations on the verge of the impossible: From space to Cambodia

It was difficult to implement innovations then. And now it seems that it is not much easier. I will never forget the words of another great military leader of ours. I demonstrated to him at the Radio Reception Center of the Ministry of Defense how we could transmit and receive documents to our contingent in Cambodia using a shortwave packet radio connection between computers:

“Very well, guys, bravo for your enthusiasm… but let the radio operators receive their reports by ear first, and then you continue to do your experiments…”

This statement actually made our further work meaningless… It’s no wonder that the radio operators received a report by ear for more than half an hour, while it passed through the packet modems in three minutes…

My correspondent in Cambodia was the same Petty Officer Vasil Yordanov Vassilev from the crew of the space station. With his help (and with a lot of ingenuity) we managed to build a working system from absolutely discarded products. Thanks to it, our soldiers in Cambodia could talk to their families in Bulgaria completely free of charge, with an alternative of 6 dollars per minute via an American satellite.

Lifelong lessons

During these years, I learned three most important things:

1. The most valuable thing is people. Even the most expensive equipment with a shoddy crew is just a pile of iron. And vice versa – even with scrapped equipment, but with quality, motivated and well-trained people, miracles can be achieved (as we proved with the connection in Cambodia).
2. The best investment is in people, in their knowledge and skills. It pays off many times over. Technologies become obsolete in days, and people improve. If you motivate them correctly, they can achieve much more than their own limits. If you fail to motivate them – you have lost the battle before it even begins.
3. Each person is a unique universe. Everyone is managed in their own way and requires extremely careful treatment. If you manage to find the key to a person, he respects you to the end. I learned that you can break through with your own authority, without „ties“. And that if you hold on to your authority, your subordinates are ready to step into the fire for you.

There is something to be proud of, that we are Bulgarians!

The successes achieved should be respected and celebrated. They are a historical fact and there is no need to invent them. When it comes to national pride, modesty is completely unnecessary. Today, a large part of NATO officers already know what we can do and what we are good at. We have earned their respect and trust as equal partners and friends. They know that they have something to learn from us.

The coincidence of this historical success of ours with the date May 24 may be coincidental, but it is deeply symbolic. For us, this was a real enlightenment in the world of communication and information systems.

Last but not least: AN APPEAL!

Friends, colleagues, crew members and commanders! Now, on May 24, 2026, it is 39 years since that memorable day in the walnut orchard.

Next year we have a big 40th anniversary coming up! The idea is to use the remaining year to find and gather absolutely everyone who was in one way or another connected to this historical event.

If you recognize yourself, a loved one or a colleague in this story, show it to them and let’s reconnect via the Internet! Let’s get together next year and raise a glass to what we did together!

Материалът In a walnut orchard 39 years ago: The beginning of the space age in BA е публикуван за пръв път на Галя и Тони - Галанто.

Who invented the radio? Popov, Marconi or Tesla?

Radio: A puzzle pieced together by many geniuses

In the history of science, few questions are as electrifying as the one about the „father of radio.“ Depending on where you studied, the answer is different. But if we put aside political biases, the truth turns out to be much more complex and interesting – radio is not the work of one person, but an evolution of ideas. It is not an „instantaneous“ discovery, but rather the culmination of a series of discoveries by different people at the same time.

Alexander Popov: The Pragmatic Scientist

On May 7, 1895, Alexander Popov demonstrated to the Russian Physico-Chemical Society the world’s first radio receiver, equipped with an antenna and a coherer with automatic recovery. Popov’s contribution was fundamental, because he transformed Hertz’s theoretical waves into a working device.

• Why he’s important: He created the first system that responded to electromagnetic signals in real time.
• Context: Working for the Russian Navy under strict secrecy, he was slow to patent, which cost him official recognition in the West.

Guglielmo Marconi: The Visionary Entrepreneur

The Italian Marconi was the man who „took“ radio out of the labs and sent it across the ocean. In 1896, he received the first patent for wireless telegraphy.

• Why he’s important: Marconi had a brilliant business acumen. In 1896, he received the first patent for „wireless telegraphy.“ He succeeded in sending a signal across the Atlantic (1901) and proved that radio could be used for global communication and was not just a laboratory experiment.
• Context: Although he used ideas from his predecessors, without his energy the technology would have developed much more slowly. Many of his early patents were based on the work of others (Hertz, Lodge, Tesla). In 1943, the US Supreme Court even invalidated some of his patents in favor of Tesla.

Nikola Tesla: The Theoretical Giant

Tesla is the man whose contributions are often overshadowed by his more eccentric ideas. But at the heart of every modern radio are his „resonant circuits“ (tuning to a specific frequency). Today his contributions are considered fundamental.

• Why he’s important: As early as 1893, he demonstrated the principles of radio and used resonant circuits (tuning to a specific frequency)—something without which radio today is impossible. In 1943, the U.S. Supreme Court invalidated key Marconi patents, recognizing them as Tesla’s work.
• Context: Tesla saw much further than simple telegraphy—he dreamed of wireless transmission of energy and information around the world. His ideas were so far-reaching that they often remained misunderstood or unfinished.

The Objective Verdict

Can we name just one? It’s not fair. To be completely impartial, radio is a collective creation in which everyone had a role:

1. James Clark Maxwell predicted it mathematically.
2. Heinrich Hertz proved the existence of waves.
3. Alexander Popov created the first effective receiver.
4. Nikola Tesla gave the concept of resonance and tuning.
5. Guglielmo Marconi connected all this into a working commercial system and made it available to the world.

The Conclusion

Popov is the discoverer of science, Marconi – of business, and Tesla – of the future.

All three deserve their place in the Pantheon of Technology.

Bibliography and recommended sources:

1. Marconi, G. (1897). Improvements in Transmitting Electrical Impulses and Signals, and in Apparatus therefor. British Patent No. 12,039. (Marconi’s official patent).

2. Tesla, N. (1919). My Inventions: The Autobiography of Nikola Tesla. Electrical Experimenter magazine. (Tesla’s personal memoirs where he describes his ideas for wireless transmission).

3. Popov, A. S. (1896). Relation of metal powders to electrical oscillations. Journal of the Russian Physical and Chemical Society (ZRFHO). (The publication describing his „ugly flag“ – the first receiver).

4. U.S. Supreme Court (1943). Marconi Wireless Tel. Co. v. United States, 320 U.S. 1. (The U.S. Supreme Court decision that recognized the priority of Tesla’s patents over Marconi’s.)

5. Lodge, O. J. (1894). The Work of Hertz and Some of His Successors. London: „The Electrician“ Printing and Publishing Company. (An important source for the development of the coherer, used by both Popov and Marconi).

6. Süsskind, C. (1962). Popov and the Beginnings of Radiotelegraphy. Proceedings of the IRE. (One of the most objective Western studies of Popov’s contributions).

7. Aitken, Hugh G. J. (1985). The Continuous Wave: Technology and American Radio, 1900-1932. Princeton University Press. (A classic work on the technological evolution of radio).

Материалът Who invented the radio? Popov, Marconi or Tesla? е публикуван за пръв път на Галя и Тони - Галанто.

Wandering through the jungle of fast charging protocols: Why „powerful“ is not always „fast“.

Once upon a time there were two wires and the most difficult part of charging was not to confuse plus with minus. Charging batteries today has nothing to do with that – along with plus and minus, there is a continuous conversation between the device being charged and the charging device. And this conversation, on top of everything, takes place in different languages, the so-called protocols.

And even before we get to this conversation, the hardware must be fully compatible: we use different chargers, cables, adapters from one standard to another… And even if we match everything, it may turn out that the charger provides the necessary protocol, but does not provide the full range of voltage and current for the most efficient charging. There are electronics in the cables themselves, some even have their own firmware that can be updated.

The wandering through the jungle of protocols for fast charging begins.

Cables are not what they used to be.

Of course, most users don’t care about this. For them, there are „branded“ chargers and cables, and „counterfeits“. They are willing to pay many times more for original chargers, thereby compensating for their ignorance. If you are one of these people, this article is not for you.

In fact, there are almost no counterfeits on the market

Hardware usually has a description, and it is true. The fact that someone does not understand what is written in the description does not make the hardware a „counterfeit“. A large part of users do not read what is written about the devices at all – be it cables, chargers or adapters. Yes, some manufacturers use marketing tricks to sell their products, but this does not make them guilty, nor their products – counterfeit.

Never forget that when you point your finger at someone, three other fingers are pointing at you! If you think the same way, I recommend that you continue reading and I hope that this reading will be useful to you, as I plan to try to explain everything simply, so that even I can understand it!

Let’s start with the cable

Plus and minus are no longer enough. You need at least two more, and for Type-C four more wires – D+, D- and CC1, CC2 (and let’s not forget one more – a common ground for everyone).

• D+ (Data Plus) and D- (Data Minus): These are the data signal lines in the old, classic USB standard (USB 2.0).
• CC1 (Configuration Channel 1) and CC2 (Configuration Channel 2): These are the configuration channels that are specific and critical only for the USB Type-C connector.

A detailed explanation of each of them:

A) The D+ and D- (Data Lines) pair

These lines were created to transfer data (for example, from a flash drive to a computer). However, in the pre-USB-C era, engineers found a way to use them for fast charging.

• How they work to charge: When you connect your old phone to a charger, they „negotiate“ for power using the voltage on these two lines. For example, if the charger outputs 3.3V on D+ and 0.6V on D-, the phone “knows” that it is a QC3.0 charger and can request 9V or 12V.
• Protocols that use D+ / D-:
  • BC1.2 (CDP): The oldest charging standard.
  • APPLE: Apple uses specific resistors on D+ and D- to indicate whether the charger is 5W, 10W or 12W.
  • Qualcomm Quick Charge (QC) 2.0 and 3.0: Rely entirely on the voltage levels on D+ and D-.
  • Samsung AFC: Same as QC2.0.
  • Huawei FCP: Uses a digital signal on the date lines.
  • OPPO/OnePlus/Realme (old versions VOOC / DASH / WARP): Uses a proprietary protocol on D+ and D-, which requires an original cable.

B) The CC1 and CC2 pair (Configuration Channels) 

This is the innovation in USB Type-C. These pins are the reason why USB-C is so smart and can be plugged in from both sides (reversible).

• How they work:
  • Orientation detection: When you plug in a USB-C cable, the charger measures which of the two CC pins is connected. This way it understands which side is “up” and which is “down” so it knows where to supply power.
  • Role detection: They allow the device to know whether it is plugged into a charger (Host) or another device (Peripheral).
  • USB Power Delivery (PD): This is where all the magic happens. The PD protocol doesn’t use the old data lines (D+/D-). Instead, it sends a digital code on the active CC pin (the other one is left for powering „active“ cables). Through this code, the charger and the phone talk to negotiate high voltage and high current (e.g. 20V @ 5A for laptops).
• Protocols that use CC lines:
  • USB Power Delivery (PD) 2.0 / 3.0 / 3.1: Fully digital signals on the CC line.
  • PPS (Programmable Power Supply): As part of PD.
  • Qualcomm Quick Charge 4.0 / 5.0: Since these standards are compatible with PD, they also use the CC line.
  • Chinese fast protocols (Huawei SuperCharge, OPPO VOOC) in modern USB-C versions: Some of them also use CC to recognize the original cable or for compatibility with PD.

The difference between BC1.2 DCP and CDP 

The BC1.2 (Battery Charging 1.2) protocol can be either DCP or CDP. Here’s what it means. There is a significant difference between DCP and CDP, but the commonality is that both allow charging with a higher current than the standard USB 2.0 (which is only 500mA).

DCP (Dedicated Charging Port) 

A port that is designed solely for power. It does not have digital logic to transfer photos or files.

• How it works: To tell the phone that it is a powerful charger, it simply „shorts“ the two data lines (D+ and D-) inside the port itself. When the phone „senses“ that D+ and D- are connected together, it knows that this is a DCP and can safely draw up to 1.5A of current at 5V.
• When it works: When you use devices that plug directly into a wall outlet or car cigarette lighter (old adapters, old and not so old power banks).

CDP (Charging Downstream Port) 

A much „smarter“ port. It allows your device (e.g. phone) to simultaneously charge quickly and be recognized by your computer as a data device (for file transfers, ADB debugging, etc.).

• How it works: The CDP contains specialized electronics. When you connect your phone, this port uses a complex series of signals on the data lines (D+/D-) to tell your phone, “I’m a USB data port, but I also have a powerful power supply. You can draw up to 1.5A while we talk.”
• When it works: When you’re testing the USB ports on a modern computer or an expensive docking station.

When the cable is smart: the E-Marker chip

I mentioned that some cables have a chip embedded in them. This is most often a microscopic chip embedded in one or both connectors of a USB Type-C to Type-C cable, and is called an E-Marker (Electronic Marker).

The E-marker can be likened to an “electronic ID” for the cable.

• What it is for: In the standard USB PD (Power Delivery) protocol without E-Marker, the charger is not allowed to deliver more than 3A of current (i.e. a maximum of 60W at 20V), so as not to overheat and ignite a thin or cheap cable.
• How it works: However, when the charger and the phone „talk“, they „ask“ the cable: „What are you?“.
  1. If the cable has an E-Marker, it responds digitally on the CC line: „I am a certified cable, I can withstand 5A of current and support USB 3.2 data.“
  2. Then the charger safely activates profiles from 60W to 100W (and even 240W in PD 3.1).

What about VOOC/SuperVOOC cables?

Some cables do not need E-Marker (for example, those from OPPO/OnePlus/Realme, which work on SuperVOOC protocols). They have their own proprietary chips. Their approach is different – in them the voltage is low (5V or 10.5V), but the current is significant (up to 6A-12A) to achieve the desired charging power.

• Different standard: E-Marker is an open standard of USB-IF. SuperVOOC is privately owned by OPPO. If the charger uses the PD protocol to „knock on the door“, the OPPO chip will not respond. That’s why the FNIRSI tester will write to you: „No E-Marker Found“.
• Hidden Hardware/Software: In older USB-A to USB-C cables for VOOC, recognition is often done in a purely hardware way – an additional, proprietary pin inside the USB-A connector that the phone detects. In modern OPPO USB-C to USB-C cables there is a chip, but it uses proprietary cryptographic keys to identify itself to the phone as „original“.

The original OPPO cable has a chip, but the PD protocol cannot read the information inside it because it is locked.

The difference in approaches (20V/5A vs. 10V/10A) 

• PD (Power Delivery): It uses high voltage (e.g. 20V) to transfer power. The chip (E-Marker) is needed to confirm that the cable can withstand high current (5A) so that it does not catch fire.
• SuperVOOC: It uses low voltage (5V or 10V) to transfer power, but with extremely high current (up to 6A-12A depending on the version). Here, the chip is not for voltage safety, but for authentication. OPPO wants to make sure that you are using their specific cable, which has thicker copper wires to transfer this high current without loss.

Most mass PD cables (without E-Marker), even if they are of good quality, cannot transfer 10-12A current at 5V-10V. The OPPO phone „knows“ this, „talks“ to the chip in the original cable and only then activates SuperVOOC. If the chip does not respond, the phone limits charging to the basic 5V/2A.

Systematizing the Jungle: A Table of Fast Charging Protocols

Here is my attempt to systematize the jungle in a table:

Conclusion

Please be lenient if there is a mistake somewhere – the jungle is a jungle for me too, although I am already quite successfully navigating. I will be happy to receive any constructive comments and additions – the comments are at your disposal!

Sources and useful information about the article

1. USB Implementers Forum (USB-IF):

   • Official technical specifications for USB Power Delivery (PD) 3.1, USB Type-C® Cable and Connector and Battery Charging (BC1.2) standards.

   • URL: https://www.usb.org/documents

2. Qualcomm Technologies, Inc.:

   • Technical information and overview of Quick Charge (QC) technology generations: QC 2.0, 3.0, 4, 4+ and QC 5.

   • URL: https://www.qualcomm.com/products/features/quick-charge

3. OPPO Global:

   • Official information about the patented VOOC and SuperVOOC fast charging technologies also used by the OnePlus brands and Realme.

   • URL: https://www.oppo.com/en/newsroom/press/oppo-supervooc-flash-charge/

4. Samsung Electronics:

   • Adaptive Support Information Fast Charging (AFC) in older models and the implementation of universal PD/PPS standards in new devices.

   • URL: https://www.samsung.com/global/galaxy/what-is-fast-charging/

5. Huawei Consumer BG:

   • Details of Huawei FastCharge Protocol (FCP) and SuperCharge Protocol (SCP) technologies.

   • URL: https://consumer.huawei.com/en/support/content/en-us00693997/

6. MediaTek Inc.:

   • Technical overview of the MediaTek Pump Express (PE) standard.

   • URL: https://www.mediatek.com/features/pump-express

7. FNIRSI Technology Co., Ltd.:

   • User manuals and specifications of the FNB58 and FNB-C2 USB testers used for diagnostics of the described protocols.

   • URL: https://www.fnirsi.com/download

Материалът Wandering through the jungle of fast charging protocols: Why „powerful“ isn’t always „fast“ е публикуван за пръв път на Галя и Тони - Галанто.

FT2 – The New Speed ​​Champion in Amateur Radio – A Practical Guide

The World of Amateur Radio Communications is changing at lightning speed, and if you thought FT8/FT4 was the pinnacle of efficiency, get ready for something new. Starting in early 2026, a new player has hit the airwaves – FT2. This experimental mode promises to make our connections faster than ever, shortening the transmission cycle to an incredible 3.75 seconds.

In this article, we’ll look at what exactly FT2 is, how to set it up, and why time accuracy is no longer just a recommendation, but a critical requirement.

What is FT2?

FT2 is an ultra-fast digital mode integrated into the latest version of WSJT-X Improved (3.1.0) by Uwe, DG2YCB. It should be noted that the name FT2 originally appeared in the Italian project Decodium, but the version in WSJT-X Improved is completely open source and optimized for mass use.

(author’s note. Please note that Decodium’s FT2 and WSJT-X Improved’s FT2 are currently not compatible. Don’t be too happy if you see that JTDX-improved starts decoding FT2 – there is no transmission support, nor are the frequencies set – for the author of JTDX-improved FT2 it is not yet a priority)

FT2 is also integrated in the MSHV version (2.76.5) version by Christo, LZ2HV.

Main features

• Cycle (T/R period): 3.75 seconds (Compared to 15 sec on FT8 and 7.5 sec on FT4).
• QSO Duration: A full contact can be completed in less than 15-20 seconds.
• Sensitivity: About -12 dB to -14 dB (ideal for contests and strong DX signals).
• Bandwidth: About 120-150 Hz.

What’s the situation with JTDX Improved?

Although the author of JTDX Improved (also based on Igor’s work, UA3DJY) keeps up with the latest news, he is a bit more conservative than Uwe (DG2YCB) regarding experimental modes.

Here’s what you need to know:

1. Decoding Only: JTDX Improved (in its latest test versions) can detect and display FT2 signals on the waterfall if they are within range of its decoder. This is possible thanks to shared libraries between the two „Improved“ versions.
2. Transmit (TX): As of March 2026, JTDX still does not have an official „FT2“ button in the main mode selection menu. JTDX is focused on maximum FT8 sensitivity, while WSJT-X Improved is the „innovation platform“ where new things like FT2 are tested.

Where to find FT2? (preferred frequencies as of early 2026)

Since the mode is new, it does not yet have official IARU segments, but the international community has already adopted the following frequencies (for all USB, DATA-U):

Note: You don’t need to manually enter these frequencies in WSJT Improved – go to the settings from /File/Settings/Frequencies and somewhere in the field where the frequencies are listed, right-click and select Reset. Most of the frequencies for FT2 will appear (the current version of WSJT Improved is missing only the frequency for 160 m).

How to find out if and where there is activity?

Although the mode is quite new, PSK Reporter filters it correctly under the name FT2. Set Using: FT2 and you will find out where the coupon is now.

The critical point: Time synchronization

If with FT8 perhaps even a difference of 1 second (DT) is permissible, with FT2 this will make you „deaf“ to the air. Due to the extremely short cycle, your computer must be synchronized with an accuracy of ± 50 ms.

Recommendation: The standard Windows synchronization is not enough. Use software like Dimension 4 or NetTime, set to check every 10-15 minutes, or the professional solution Meinberg NTP. I use the free version of NetTime with a synchronization period of 15 minutes (for a shorter period, the full version is required). 15 minutes is a good interval, but if I notice that the DT (Time Difference) in WSJT-X starts to exceed 0.2 – 0.3, I may have to look for an alternative, as much as I don’t want to push something I’m used to.

Alternatives to NetTime: Dimension 4 or Meinberg NTP

If you decide to experiment, many digital mode operators use:

1. Dimension 4: Completely free, allows synchronization every few minutes and is very lightweight.
2. Meinberg NTP: This is the „heavy artillery“. It turns your Windows into a true NTP client that maintains the time accurate to milliseconds in real time, without „jumping“ at intervals.

Important: If you use NetTime or one of the alternatives, do not forget to completely disable Windows synchronization to avoid conflicts and inaccuracies in synchronization.

Practical Tips for Operating the Yaesu FTDX10 and Other Modern Radios

1. ALC and Levels: Since switching between receive and transmit is extremely fast, make sure your ALC levels are set to zero. Rapid transitions can generate interference if the audio levels are turned up too high. Adjust the levels so that the ALC needle does not move, so as not to „slap“ on neighboring stations in this fast mode.
2. Split Mode: Be sure to use „Fake It“ or „Rig“ in the WSJT-X Improved settings (from the Radio settings) to maintain signal purity.
3. Filter Width: FT2 is wider than FT8 (about 120 Hz vs. 50 Hz). Make sure your radio’s filter in DIGI mode is at least 2400 Hz or 3000-3050 Hz to see the entire waterfall without „clipping“ at the edges.
4. Temperature mode: Your radio will work much harder. Intervals are shorter, but so are breaks. Watch for cooling during longer sessions.

Logbook and Acknowledgements (QSL)

Currently, QRZ.com reports FT2 connections as MFSK mode.

LoTW is still in the process of adding official support. At the moment, it will report your FT2 connections as errors due to the requirement for digital signing with TQSL.

If you use Wavelog, you shouldn’t have any problems.

Since FT2 is not yet officialized, QSL is unlikely to be needed for diplomas or competitions. But if you still want your confirmations to take effect immediately, then in software that does not support FT2, you can export your connections as MFSK or DATA. And hope that your correspondent announces them the same way. So, until the ADIF standard is officially updated – all fans of digital modes hope that this will happen soon.

Conclusion

FT2 is not here to replace FT8, but to give us speed when conditions allow it. This is the ideal mode for contests and „bursts“ of radio waves on 10 meters.

Download the latest version of WSJT-X Improved, set your watch and see you on 14.083 MHz!

73 de LZ3AI!

Материалът FT2 – The New Digital Revolution: Faster than FT4, more dynamic than FT8 е публикуван за пръв път на Галя и Тони - Галанто.

Yaesu FC-80 vs Yaesu FC-90

The Yaesu FC-80 and Yaesu FC-90 are automatic antenna tuners designed for the Yaesu FTX-1 Field QRP transceiver, but they are designed for different types of antennas. The FC-80 is designed to mount directly on the back of the transceiver for use with antennas terminated with 50 ohm coaxial cable and has an SO239 connector, while the FC-90 is a stand-alone tuner for Long Wire (LW) and other unbalanced 50 ohm antennas.

Yaesu FC-80 vs FC-90 Comparison

 Which tuner should you choose?

Your choice depends on your working style and the antenna setup you plan to use with your FTX-1 field radio.

Choose the FC-80 if:

• You primarily use traditional antennas with coaxial cable to the transceiver: dipoles, verticals, G5RV and the like, and want the most compact and integrated configuration possible.
• You want the convenience of a tuner that mounts directly to the back of your FTX-1 Field transceiver for a hassle-free, portable all-in-one unit.

Choose the FC-90 if:

• You use a Long Wire (LW), end-fed or other unbalanced antenna that requires an unbalanced antenna tuner.
• You don’t mind a separate external tuner to get the flexibility to use it with a wider variety of cable antennas.
• With a control cable as long as the coaxial cable, you can to place the tuner next to the antenna itself.

I hope this information was useful to you.

I would be glad if you would share this or something else in the comments. If you already have personal experience and impressions, this would be invaluable for other radio amateurs!

73 es BST DX

Материалът Yaesu FC-80 vs Yaesu FC-90 е публикуван за пръв път на Галя и Тони - Галанто.

Editing M3U and M3U8 files

M3U and M3U8 files (which is the version using UTF-8 encoding for better support for different characters) are the main playlist formats used in IPTV.

Here are the basic rules (tags) and operands (attributes) that you will need to edit these files:

Basic rules and structure of M3U/M3U8 for IPTV

1. Start tag

Every M3U/M3U8 playlist must start with the required tag:

• #EXTM3U
  • Rule: Always on the first line. Indicates that the file is an extended M3U playlist, which allows the use of additional tags such as #EXTINF.

2. Record definition (channel)

Each channel or media stream is defined by two basic lines:

A. Information tag

• #EXTINF: <duration>, <channel name>
  • Rule: This tag provides information about the entry that follows.
  • Operands:
    • <duration>: For IPTV, 0 or -1 is usually used, since the duration is unknown or unlimited.
    • <channel name>: The name that will be displayed to the user.
  • Additional attributes (operands) in #EXTINF:
    • tvg-id=“<identifier>“: A unique identifier for the channel, which is used by the electronic program guide (EPG) to match the channel to the correct broadcast. Important for EPG.
    • tvg-name=“<name>“: Alternative name, sometimes used for matching.
    • group-title=“<group>“: Defines the group/category (e.g. „Bulgarian“, „News“, „Sports“) in which the channel will be displayed in the player. Very important for organization.
    • tvg-logo=“<URL to logo>“: Direct URL to the channel logo image.

B. Stream URL

• <Media stream URL>
  • Rule: This line always follows directly after the corresponding #EXTINF line.
  • Operands: This is the direct HTTP/HTTPS/RTSP/UDP address to the media stream (channel) itself.

Example structure and editing

Code snippet

#EXTM3U

#EXTINF:0 tvg-id=“ext“ group-title=“Bulgarian“,BG | Alfa TV

http://012345x.com:999/wzw84zrZyW/FxVvvV4kbP/25184

#EXTINF:0 tvg-id=“ext“ group-title=“Bulgarian“,BG | 24 Kitchen HD

http://012345x.com:999/wzw84zrZyW/FxVvvV4kbP/25283

#EXTINF:0 tvg-id=“ext“ group-title=“Bulgarian“,BG | amc

How to edit

1. Change group (category):
   • If you want „Beta TV“ to be in group „Local“, change:
     • to
     • group-title=“Bulgarian“
     • to
     • group-title=“Local“
2. Change name:
   • If you want it to be „Beta Television“, change:
     • BG | Beta TV
     • on
     • Beta Television
3. Adding a Logo:
   • To add a logo (if you know the URL), add the tvg-logo attribute:
     • #EXTINF:0 tvg-id=“ext“ group-title=“Bulgarian“,BG | Beta TV
     • on
     • #EXTINF:0 tvg-id=“ext“ group-title=“Bulgarian“ tvg-logo=“https://url-to-logo.com/beta.png“,BG | Beta TV
4. Add a new channel:
   • You need the stream URL and add it at the end (or wherever makes sense), following the same structure:

Code snippet

#EXTINF:0 tvg-id=“nova.bg“ group-title=“News“,Nova News HD

http://url.of.the.new.stream/nova-news.m3u8

Other important tags

Less commonly used but useful tags (usually placed at the beginning of the file):

• #EXTGRP:<group name>: Sometimes used to define the group before the list of channels in it. group-title in #EXTINF is the more common and preferred method.
• #EXTVLCOPT:<settings>: To pass specific settings to VLC or compatible players.
• #EXTIMG:<URL>: Rarely used for a background image.

In short

Editing is reduced to changing the text in the #EXTINF tag attributes (group-title, tvg-id, tvg-logo, name) or changing the URL of the stream that follows. Make sure there are no blank lines or wrong characters, especially if you are using an M3U8 file that requires UTF-8 encoding for proper display of Cyrillic.

To add a comment that makes the file more readable, use the extended tag symbol, but with unknown name after it. IPTV players usually ignore tags that they do not recognize.

The most common and de facto accepted way to comment is:

#

#COMMENT: or #EXT-COMMENT:

#REM (from ‘Remark’)

How to use comments

Simply start the line with #, followed by any name or directly the text of the comment:

Code snippet

#EXTM3U

# This line is a comment and will be ignored.

#EXTINF:0 tvg-id=“nova.bg“ group-title=“Bulgarian News“,Nova TV HD

http://url-kõm-nova.m3u8

# –––––– SPORTS CHANNELS ––––––

#EXTINF:0 group-title=“Sports“ tvg-id=“max.sport.1″,Max Sport 1 HD

http://url-to-max-sport-1.m3u8

In the above example:

1. # This line is a comment and will be ignored.
2. # –––––– SPORTS CHANNELS ––––––

These lines are for visual structuring only when editing and will not affect the playback of the playlist.

EPG (Electronic Program Guide) and logos

The tvg-id identifiers and the URL addresses for the logos (tvg-logo) are not standardized by a central authority, but are defined by the EPG data provider (XMLTV source).

To have a working EPG and logos, you need to do the following:

1. Find an EPG data source (XMLTV)

You need to find a URL to a file that contains the program of Bulgarian channels, usually in XMLTV format. This file defines which tvg-id corresponds to which channel.

• Popular community sources: Commonly used community-supported projects collect and format EPG data for different regions. Search for „XMLTV Bulgaria“ or „IPTV EPG source Bulgaria“.
  • Example: A common source that can be looked at is https://iptv-epg.org/files/epg-bg.xml.gz (or similar community projects).

2. Compare tvg-id

Once you have the EPG source, you need to see what id (which corresponds to the tvg-id in your M3U) is used for each channel in this XML file.

Structure in the XMLTV file:

XML

<channel id=“bnt1.bg“>

<display-name>BNT 1</display-name>

<icon src=“http://url-kum-logoto/bnt1.png“ />

</channel>

In the above example:

• tvg-id in your M3U playlist should be: bnt1.bg
• The logo URL (tvg-logo) can be taken from the icon src attribute if your player does not download it automatically.

What to do:

1. Select EPG Source: If your IPTV player supports EPG URL input, enter the address of the XMLTV file (e.g. https://iptv-epg.org/files/epg-bg.xml.gz).
2. Edit M3U: Edit your M3U file by specifying the same tvg-id identifiers that are defined in the XMLTV file.

Example of compliance:

About the logo (tvg-logo)

Regarding logos, they are defined in two ways:

1. Automatically from EPG: Most modern IPTV players (such as Tivimate, IPTV Smarters) automatically retrieve the logo URLs from the attribute <icon src=“…“> in the XMLTV file you entered.
2. Manually in M3U: If the player does not do it automatically, you need to add a tvg-logo attribute to each channel in your M3U:

#EXTINF:0 tvg-id=“bnt1.bg“ tvg-logo=“http://url-to-logo/bnt1.png“,BNT 1

Conclusion

The best place to find the correct tvg-ids is by finding and opening a current XMLTV source for Bulgaria and using the identifiers defined within it. Since these sources are community-maintained, they are the most reliable for matching EPG data.

Материалът Editing M3U and M3U8 files е публикуван за пръв път на Галя и Тони - Галанто.

The secret to long life: How to tell whether the battery is excellent, good or damaged by measuring internal resistance

Internal resistance is one of the best indicators of the condition of a battery. It is like blood pressure for a person – it gives a lot of information about its “health”. Let’s take a closer look at how we can use internal resistance to assess the health of different types of batteries.

What is internal resistance?

The internal resistance (R_int​) of a battery is a measure of the resistance of all the components inside it that impede the flow of electric current. This includes the resistance of the electrolyte, the electrodes, the separator, and the connections between them. The lower the internal resistance, the more efficiently the battery can deliver and receive energy.

Why is it important?

Over time and use, the internal resistance of a battery increases. This is due to various processes such as:

• Electrode wear: Formation of layers with higher resistance, change in crystal structure.
• Electrolyte degradation: Increase in viscosity, decrease in ionic conductivity.
• Loss of active material: Contraction and expansion leading to loss of contact.

Increased internal resistance leads to:

• Reduced capacity: The battery cannot store as much energy.
• Reduced power: It cannot deliver high current, especially under continuous load.
• Increased heating: More energy is lost as heat during charging and discharging.
• Faster self-discharge: Not directly related, but often goes hand in hand with other degradation processes.

How is internal resistance measured?

There are two main measurement methods:

1. AC (alternating current) method: This is the most common and accurate method. The device applies a small alternating current of a certain frequency (for example, 1 kHz) through the battery and measures the voltage drop. Internal resistance is calculated using Ohm’s law (R=V/I). Most specialized battery testers use this method.
2. DC (direct current) method: The voltage drop when a known load is applied is measured. This method is simpler, but less accurate, as it depends on the state of charge and temperature. However, it is more accessible in practice, because it does not require specialized devices – two multimeters and a sufficiently powerful resistor with accurate resistance are sufficient (for example). There are very good descriptions of this method on Youtube.

Classification of batteries by internal resistance

It should be borne in mind that there are no universal, strictly defined values ​​of internal resistance that are applicable to absolutely all batteries, as they depend on:

• Chemical composition: Li-ion, LiFePO4, NiMH, lead-acid have different typical values.
• Capacity: A battery with a higher capacity usually has a lower internal resistance.
• Size/Form factor: 18650, 21700, 26650 have different designs and sizes.
• Manufacturer: Different manufacturers and series have differences.
• Purpose: Batteries for high currents (power cells) have a much lower internal resistance than those for high capacity (capacity cells).
• Temperature: At lower temperatures, the internal resistance increases.
• State of charge (SoC): At very low or very high charge the internal resistance may increase slightly. For the most accurate measurements, it is recommended that the battery be about 50-80% charged.

Guidelines

The following are guidelines for determining the quality of different types of batteries.

Lithium-ion batteries (18650, 21700, 26650, etc.)

These batteries are very sensitive to internal resistance. Values ​​are often measured in milliohms (mΩ).

Table with updated indicative values ​​for 18650/21700 according to purpose

Internal resistance of lithium „coin“ batteries (CR2032, CR2016, CR2025, etc.)

These batteries are of the type primary lithium batteries (non-rechargeable). Their chemical composition is different (lithium-manganese dioxide usually) and they are designed for very low discharge current for an extremely long period (years).

• Intended use: Watches, computer motherboards (CMOS batteries), small remotes, toys, low-power medical devices.
• Typical internal resistance: The internal resistance of these batteries is significantly higher than that of rechargeable lithium-ion batteries, but this is normal for their purpose.

Important notes about „coin“ batteries:

• High sensitivity of the meter: Some internal resistance testers, especially those designed for Li-ion batteries, may not give accurate or reliable readings for coin batteries due to their very high impedance and different frequency characteristics.
• Focus on voltage: With these batteries, it is often more practical to relies on measuring the voltage under minimal load, as it drops significantly as the battery nears the end of its life. A new CR2032 is around 3V, while below 2.8V is already considered worn out for most applications. However, internal resistance is a better indicator of remaining life than open circuit voltage alone.
• They are not for high current: Trying to draw high current from such a battery would result in a huge voltage drop due to the high internal resistance.

Differences in internal resistance according to the purpose of lithium-ion batteries

Lithium-ion batteries of the same form factor (e.g. 18650) are manufactured for different purposes, which directly affects their internal resistance:

1. Power Cells:
   • Purpose: Power tools, vaping devices, drones, electric bicycles/scooters – applications where it is necessary to deliver high currents for a short or long period.
   • Design: Optimized for minimal internal resistance through thinner separators, larger electrode area, and higher conductivity materials. This is usually at the expense of capacitance.
   • Typical internal resistance (new): Very low, typically below 15 mΩ, often in the 8−12 mΩ range.
2. High Capacity Batteries (Capacity Cells):
   • Intended Use: Laptops, flashlights, power banks, medical devices – applications where maximum capacity is important, not so much the ability to deliver very high current.
   • Design: Optimized for maximum capacity through a larger amount of active material. This can lead to slightly higher internal resistance compared to „power“ cells.
   • Typical internal resistance (new): Moderately low, usually in the 20−30 mΩ range, although some newer and more efficient models can be below 20 mΩ.
3. Low Drain / Long Life Cells:
   • Use: Applications where very low, constant current is required for a long period of time, such as watches, remote controls, sensors, backup batteries.
   • Design: The focus is on voltage stability, low self-discharge and long life at low loads. Internal resistance is not as critical a factor as with „power“ cells, but should still be within acceptable limits.
   • Typical internal resistance (new): Higher than „power“ and „capacity“ cells, but still within reasonable limits for lithium-ion technology. For 18650 or similar cells, values ​​of 40−60 mΩ for new cells designed for very low current only can be considered normal. Important: Values ​​above 100 mΩ for 18650 even for this type will indicate degradation.

Additional notes for Li-ion batteries:

• New batteries: Will always have the lowest internal resistance.
• Parallel connected: With parallel connected cells it is critical that they all have similar internal resistance to balance the load and prevent overloading of the weaker cells. With such a connection, the total resistance is lower (calculated as with parallel resistors) and, accordingly, they can deliver more current at the same voltage.
• LiFePO4 (Lithium Iron Phosphate): These batteries usually have a lower internal resistance than standard Li-ion, especially when they are designed for high currents. For example, a new LiFePO4 32650 battery may have an internal resistance of less than 5 mΩ.

• Get batteries from manufacturers that guarantee a certain internal resistance in their specifications. Avoid battery „repackers“, no matter how much they praise them in forums and reviews. The claim that 200 mΩ can be a good internal resistance for an 18650 is false – this is too high a value even for low-current batteries. At 200 mΩ, an 18650 battery, regardless of its purpose, would be severely degraded and with very limited capacity and power, practically unusable.

Nickel-Metal Hydride (NiMH) and Nickel-Cadmium (NiCd) batteries

These batteries usually have a higher internal resistance than lithium-ion, especially in smaller sizes (AA, AAA).

Additional notes for NiMH/NiCd:

• „Memory effect“ and crystallization: These effects can increase internal resistance.
• The discharge-charge limits during initial operation are important due to the memory effect.

Lead-acid batteries (car, some stationary, etc.)

In car batteries, the internal resistance is extremely low and is measured in microohms (μΩ) or tenths of a milliohm (mΩ). It is a key indicator of the battery’s ability to deliver high cranking current (CCA – Cold Cranking Amps).

Additional notes for lead-acid batteries:

• State of charge: In these batteries, the state of charge has a significant impact on the internal resistance. Measurements should be made with a fully charged battery.
• Temperature: At low temperatures, the internal resistance increases significantly, which is the cause of difficulties when starting a car in winter.
• Sulfation: This is the main cause of increased internal resistance in lead-acid batteries.

General advice and conclusions

• Measure with the same device: To obtain the most reliable results, always use the same internal resistance tester. Different devices may give slightly different readings.
• Consistency: Measure under similar conditions – temperature and state of charge (for Li-ion around 50-80%, for lead-acid fully charged).
• Combine with other indicators: Internal resistance is an excellent indicator, but it is not the only one. Combine it with capacity measurement (especially for Li-ion), voltage under load and visual inspection (for swelling, leaks, etc.).
• Track the development: The best assessment of the condition of the battery is obtained when you track its internal resistance over time. If it starts to increase rapidly, this is a sure sign of degradation.
• Unit of measurement: Be careful with the units of measurement – ​​milliohms (mΩ) and microohms (μΩ). 1 mΩ=1000μΩ.

Using the FNIRSI HRM-10: Practical Aspects

FNIRSI HRM-10 is a popular and relatively affordable battery internal resistance tester, and with it we can easily practically understand whether the battery is excellent, good or damaged.

It uses the AC (alternating current) method at 1 kHz, which is a standard and reliable approach to measuring the internal resistance of batteries. Importantly, it is a four-wire (Kelvin) tester, which is key to accuracy. Four-wire measurement eliminates the influence of test lead resistance and battery terminal contact, which is a major source of error in simpler two-wire methods.

Overall, you can expect the FNIRSI HRM-10 to provide fairly accurate and reliable results for its price, especially for 18650, 21700, 26650 lithium-ion batteries, as well as automotive batteries.

It is recommended to consider the following features to be sure whether the battery is excellent, good or damaged:

1. Accuracy at extreme values:
   • Very low resistances (below 1 mΩ): Although the HRM-10 is quite good at measuring the internal resistance of new, high-quality car batteries (which can drop below 2-3 mΩ), there may be slight deviations from ideal laboratory instruments. However, for everyday use and condition determination, a difference of 0.1−0.2 mΩ will not be fatal.
   • Very high resistances (above 1-2 ohms): Although it can measure up to 200 ohms, with coin batteries (CR2032 and similar), whose resistance can be hundreds of milliohms to a few ohms, the results may be less stable or vary more. This is not a problem with the device specifically, but with the specificity of these batteries and the fact that testers are optimized for lower values.
2. Calibration: Although the FNIRSI HRM-10 comes factory calibrated, over time or under extreme conditions of use, the accuracy may shift slightly. The device has the ability to be calibrated, which is a plus. For maximum accuracy, periodic checking with a known precision resistor (or other calibrated device) would be very useful.
3. Temperature: As mentioned, temperature has a strong effect on internal resistance. Make sure the batteries you are testing are at room temperature (around 20−25∘C) for the most consistent and comparable results. If you are testing a battery that has just been used heavily (and is warmed up) or has been in the cold, the results will be distorted.
4. State of Charge (SoC): Although the AC method is less sensitive to SoC than the DC method, it is still advisable to test Li-ion batteries at a similar state of charge (e.g. 50−80%). Lead-acid batteries must be fully charged for an adequate assessment.
5. Terminal Contact: Although it is a four-wire, poor contact between the probes/clamps and the battery terminals can lead to inaccurate and/or variable readings. Make sure the terminals are clean and you have a solid, tight contact.
6. „Noise“ in the measurement: In some cases, especially with lower internal resistance values ​​or in the presence of interference, slight fluctuations in the readings may be observed. This is normal for most handheld devices. The approach in this case is to take several measurements and average the results if necessary.

Overall impressions of FNIRSI HRM-10:

• Advantages:
  • Four-wire method (Kelvin connection): Excellent basis for precise measurements.
  • 1 kHz AC measurement: Industry standard.
  • Wide range: Allows testing of various types of batteries – from small lithium-ion to automotive.
  • Sorting function: Allows you to set thresholds for „good“ and „bad“ batteries, which is very useful for sorting large numbers of cells.
  • Price/performance: Offers very good functionality for its price range.
• Disadvantages (usually minor):
  • May require a little time to get used to the menus.
  • As with any device, there may be slight variations between individual units.

Conclusion

FNIRSI HRM-10 is a very good choice for practical use. The theory we discussed is fully applicable to its measurements. Do not expect significant differences that would make the theory meaningless, but you should also be aware of the factors that can affect the accuracy of the measurement (temperature, SoC, contact) and minimize them according to your capabilities and circumstances to get the most reliable results.

If you follow these basic rules, the FNIRSI HRM-10 will be an extremely useful tool for assessing the condition of batteries and will help you make informed decisions about which ones are still usable and which ones should be discarded.

Last words

All data from this article is only a starting point. It is recommended to collect data from one’s own practice and real experience of trusted people from the amateur radio community about the internal resistance and capacity of batteries, from which to draw conclusions about their quality. User reviews, unless supported by real measurements, are not the best source for an informed decision.

According to my experience so far, batteries should only be purchased from manufacturers who are not afraid to publish real data about their batteries. The so-called „repackers“, if they publish any specifications at all, they are unrealistic and often obviously fake, but with a tempting price. But there is no guarantee that if their batteries are more expensive, they are of better quality.

Whether the battery is excellent, good or damaged?

We hope that this research of mine was useful to you and I will be glad to share your opinion in the comments, no matter what it is.

Материалът Whether the battery is excellent, good or damaged? How to tell by measuring internal resistance е публикуван за пръв път на Галя и Тони - Галанто.

Fast Charging: How It Works and Why It’s Important for Our Devices

In today’s fast-paced world, time is precious, especially when it comes to our favorite gadgets. Imagine rushing to go out and your phone’s battery is almost empty. At such times, fast charging technology becomes a real lifesaver. But how exactly does it work and why is it so important for our laptops, phones, and other devices?

Why is fast charging so important?

We rely more and more on our electronic devices, from laptops for work to smartphones for communication and entertainment. The more we use them, the faster our batteries drain. Fast charging allows us to reduce the time we spend waiting for an outlet and get back to our tasks faster. ¹

How does the magic work?

Standard charging is often slow because it uses low voltage and current. Fast charging, on the other hand, increases either the voltage or the current, or both, to deliver more power to the battery in a shorter amount of time. ² Different technologies use different approaches, but the end goal is the same – faster charging.

The main players in fast charging

There are different fast charging technologies developed by different companies. Here are some of the most common:

• USB Power Delivery (PD): A universal standard that works with many devices, from laptops to phones, using a USB-C port. It intelligently negotiates the best charging power between the charger and the device. ²
• Qualcomm Quick Charge (QC): A popular technology used primarily in Android phones with Qualcomm Snapdragon processors. It comes in different versions with increasing charging speeds. ¹
• VOOC/Warp Charge/Dart Charge/SuperVOOC: Proprietary technologies from Oppo, OnePlus, and Realme, known for their extremely fast charging speeds at low device temperatures. ¹
• SuperCharge (SCP/FCP): A technology from Huawei that also offers fast charging on their devices. ¹
• Adaptive Fast Charging/Super Fast Charging/Adaptive Fast Charging: Samsung technologies that adapt to the needs of the device and the charger. ¹
• Xiaomi HyperCharge: One of the fastest technologies, offering an impressive power of up to 200W. ¹

Algorithms for the layman

Think of charging your phone like filling a tank with water. Standard charging is like running water from a tap – it fills slowly but surely. Fast charging is like turning on the tap more or even using a wider hose to fill the tank faster.

Fast charging algorithms are like a „conversation“ between the charger and your phone. They agree on how much „water“ (electricity) to flow and how „strongly“ (at what voltage) it should flow in order to charge the battery as quickly as possible, but also safely.

Here’s a very simplified look at how some of the main standards (protocols) work:

1. USB Power Delivery (USB PD)

Think of USB PD as a universal language that many devices (phones, tablets, laptops) and chargers speak.

• The „conversation“: When you connect your phone to a USB PD charger, they first „talk“ to each other. The charger asks: „How fast can you charge and what voltage and current do you need right now?“ The phone answers based on the state of its battery (how full it is, what is the temperature).
• „Adjusting the tap“: Based on this conversation, the charger „adjusts the tap“ – adjusting the voltage (the strength with which electricity flows) and current (the amount of electricity that flows). USB PD can offer different combinations of voltage and current to best suit the needs of the device at that particular moment. At the beginning, when the battery is more empty, a higher „power“ and more „water“ can be used to fill it quickly. As the charge approaches full, the „tap“ is gradually reduced.
• Safety: Throughout the process, the phone continues to „monitor“ the battery temperature and charge level. If the battery starts to heat up too much or reaches a certain percentage of charge (for example, 80%), the phone „tells“ the charger to reduce the „power“ and „water“ to avoid overheating and preserve the battery’s long-term health.

2. Qualcomm Quick Charge (QC)

Qualcomm Quick Charge is one of the most popular standards, especially on phones with Qualcomm processors (many Android phones).

• „The Conversation“: Similar to USB PD, the QC charger and the phone „talk“ to each other. The charger offers different voltage and current levels that it supports. The phone chooses the most appropriate level for the current state of its battery.
• „Tuning the tap“: Early versions of QC used fixed voltage levels (e.g. 5V, 9V, 12V). Newer versions, such as Quick Charge 3.0 and later, introduced what is called INOV (Intelligent Negotiation for Optimum Voltage). This means that the phone can ask the charger for much more precise voltage steps (such as increasing or decreasing by very small amounts) to optimize the charging speed and reduce energy loss in the form of heat. Think of it as very fine-tuning the tap, not just opening it two or three stops.
• Safety: Again, the phone and charger constantly monitor the temperature and condition of the battery to regulate the flow of electricity and prevent problems.

3. Samsung Adaptive Fast Charging (AFC)

This standard is primarily used by Samsung. It is based on older versions of Qualcomm Quick Charge.

• „The Conversation“: The phone and charger communicate to agree on the appropriate voltage and current. Typically, the charger offers a standard voltage (5V) and a higher voltage (such as 9V), and the phone chooses which is best for its needs.
• „Tap Tuning“: AFC switches between certain, preset voltage and current levels. It is not as flexible as newer standards that allow for finer tuning.
• Safety: There are built-in protection mechanisms to monitor temperature and prevent overcharging.

4. Proprietary standards (such as Huawei SuperCharge, OPPO VOOC/SuperVOOC, Xiaomi Mi Charge Turbo/HyperCharge)

Some phone manufacturers have their own fast charging standards, which often achieve extremely high speeds.

• „The Conversation“ and „Tank Tuning“: These standards often take a different approach. Instead of significantly increasing the voltage, they can maintain a lower voltage but dramatically increase the current. Think of it as using a very wide hose (high current) with normal pressure (normal voltage). To achieve this, they often require special cables with more conductors and thicker wires to handle the high current safely. The „smart“ part itself that controls charging may be located in both the charger and the phone, or even split between the two. With some of the fastest standards, the phone’s battery may be split into two parts that are charged simultaneously, allowing for a higher total power.
• Safety: These standards have very strict and often complex safety systems that monitor the temperature in many places (in the charger, cable, phone, and battery) and regulate the process in real time. Because they operate at higher powers, safety is critical and therefore often require the use of original chargers and cables.

In summary about the algorithms:

Each fast charging standard has its own „algorithm“ or set of rules for the „conversation“ between the charger and the phone. The purpose of this conversation is to determine the most efficient and safest way to deliver electricity to the battery at a given time. The differences between the standards are mainly in:

• What voltage and current levels they can use.
• How finely they can regulate these levels.
• Where the main „smart“ part that controls the process is located (in the charger, in the phone, or in both).
• What additional technologies they use (e.g., special cables, separate batteries).

Despite the differences, all fast charging standards have built-in safety mechanisms that protect the battery from overheating and damage by gradually reducing the charging speed when the battery is almost full or the temperature rises.

Here is a table that presents the maximum voltage and current, respectively power, for different USB ports and generations of charging and fast charging standards:

Cables matter too!

It is important to know that not every cable is suitable for every fast charging technology. Cables also have specifications that determine how much power they can carry. Higher charging speeds often require higher quality and specialized cables that can support higher current. For example, technologies such as Warp Charge and SuperVOOC often require the use of original cables from the respective manufacturers to achieve maximum charging speed. ²⁶

Fast Charging and Battery Health

You may be worried that fast charging could damage your device’s battery. Modern fast charging technologies are designed with battery safety and longevity in mind. They use advanced algorithms to manage the charging process and monitor temperature to prevent overheating and damage. ¹

The future is fast charging, and it’s coming sooner than we expect

Fast charging technologies continue to evolve, aiming for even faster speeds and greater efficiency. Universal standards like USB PD are becoming more popular, making it easier to charge multiple devices with the same charger. ¹

In conclusion, fast charging is an essential part of modern electronic life. Understanding the different technologies and requirements will help you charge your devices faster and more efficiently, while preserving the health of their batteries.

For the more curious

Here’s a full study as a PDF file (in Bulgarian) and plenty of links where they can read up on what interests them specifically.

Fast Charging – Technologies and Cables (in Bulgarian)

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110. MacBook Pro Charger Wattage: The Ultimate Guide – Anker, осъществен достъп на май 3, 2025, https://www.anker.com/blogs/chargers/charger-wattage-for-macbook-pro
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114. What is the max charging wattage for the Macbook Pro with M4 Pro, using the Thunderbolt 5 port USB-C port? – Reddit, осъществен достъп на май 3, 2025, https://www.reddit.com/r/macbook/comments/1goo5s4/what_is_the_max_charging_wattage_for_the_macbook/
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128. WTF is SuperVOOC fast charging? – YouTube, осъществен достъп на май 3, 2025, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Q6L1VOIPiu8
129. OPPO VOOC Flash Charge | OPPO Global, осъществен достъп на май 3, 2025, https://www.oppo.com/en/discover/technology/vooc/
130. SuperVOOC fast charging technology: Everything you need to know – Android Authority, осъществен достъп на май 3, 2025, https://www.androidauthority.com/supervooc-fast-charging-686000/
131. The world’s FASTEST phone charger (SuperVOOC explained) : r/Android – Reddit, осъществен достъп на май 3, 2025, https://www.reddit.com/r/Android/comments/9k6ak3/the_worlds_fastest_phone_charger_supervooc/
132. OPPO SuperVOOC Explained – YouTube, осъществен достъп на май 3, 2025, https://m.youtube.com/watch?v=YfyG4b5-zOs
133. OPPO Showcases Find X5 Series and 240W SUPERVOOC Flash Charge at MWC 2022 While Presenting Strong Global Performance, осъществен достъп на май 3, 2025, https://www.oppo.com/en/newsroom/press/oppo-mwc-2022-240w-supervooc-cpe/
134. MYVN 5V/4A Compatible Vooc SuperFast Data Sync Charging Cable for Oppo F9 F9 pro Oppo F11 Pro & All Oppo Smartphone -White – Amazon.com, осъществен достъп на май 3, 2025, https://www.amazon.com/MYVN-Compatible-SuperFast-Charging-Smartphone/dp/B0951WMWLY
135. Oppo Cable 65w Original Supervooc Charger Cabel Type C Reno 7 5g 5 Pro 6 Lite 4 3 Find X5 Pro X X2 X3 Neo Vooc Kabel Data Oppo – AliExpress, осъществен достъп на май 3, 2025, https://www.aliexpress.com/i/1005004421104856.html
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137. Ultimate Guide to iPad Charger Wattage – Jackery, осъществен достъп на май 3, 2025, https://www.jackery.com/blogs/knowledge/ultimate-guide-to-ipad-charger-wattage
138. iPad Pro M4 (2024) battery and charging – PhoneArena, осъществен достъп на май 3, 2025, https://www.phonearena.com/news/ipad-pro-2024-battery-charging_id156240
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142. iPad Pro 2022 (11-inch)Charging Power? – Apple Support Community, осъществен достъп на май 3, 2025, https://discussions.apple.com/thread/254839438
143. What watt charger? : r/GalaxyTab – Reddit, осъществен достъп на май 3, 2025, https://www.reddit.com/r/GalaxyTab/comments/162hfcr/what_watt_charger/
144. Galaxy Tab S7+ Charger Comparison: 45W vs 25W vs 15W – YouTube, осъществен достъп на май 3, 2025, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=HPBu3VlEeW8
145. Fitbit Charge 6 Review: Do I even need a smartwatch any more?, осъществен достъп на май 3, 2025, https://alexreviewstech.com/fitbit-charge-6-review-do-i-even-need-a-smartwatch-any-more/
146. Sequent SuperCharger HR 2.2 hybrid smartwatch. My new favorite watch for in-between runs. – Reddit, осъществен достъп на май 3, 2025, https://www.reddit.com/r/smartwatch/comments/wuuc3k/sequent_supercharger_hr_22_hybrid_smartwatch_my/
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151. Apple Watch Ultra 2 – Technical Specifications, осъществен достъп на май 3, 2025, https://www.apple.com/apple-watch-ultra-2/specs/
152. Portable Fast Charger for Apple Watch | Belkin US, осъществен достъп на май 3, 2025, https://www.belkin.com/p/portable-fast-charger-for-apple-watch/P-WIZ015.html
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157. Does the surface charge faster with high wattages? – Reddit, осъществен достъп на май 3, 2025, https://www.reddit.com/r/Surface/comments/108uvv1/does_the_surface_charge_faster_with_high_wattages/
158. A Not-So-Brief Explanation/Analysis of the Switch Charging Situation : r/NintendoSwitch, осъществен достъп на май 3, 2025, https://www.reddit.com/r/NintendoSwitch/comments/5vhw9y/a_notsobrief_explanationanalysis_of_the_switch/
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162. Fast Charger for Nintendo Switch,USB C Type C Power Adapter Compatible with Nintendo Switch Lite OLED Dock,15V/2.6A Supports TV Mode,Portable Travel Charger with 5.5FT Cable – Amazon.com, осъществен достъп на май 3, 2025, https://www.amazon.com/Charger-Nintendo-Compatible-Supports-Portable/dp/B0CB1W44HG
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174. What wattage is the official Steam Deck charger? – Android Authority, осъществен достъп на май 3, 2025, https://www.androidauthority.com/steam-deck-charger-wattage-3339790/
175. Does the type of cable matter to handle faster charging? : r/UsbCHardware – Reddit, осъществен достъп на май 3, 2025, https://www.reddit.com/r/UsbCHardware/comments/1fz5r7d/does_the_type_of_cable_matter_to_handle_faster/
176. Does USB-IF certification matter for a basic charging cable? : r/UsbCHardware – Reddit, осъществен достъп на май 3, 2025, https://www.reddit.com/r/UsbCHardware/comments/1b3oxyg/does_usbif_certification_matter_for_a_basic/
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184. USB-C® to USB-C Cable 240W – Belkin, осъществен достъп на май 3, 2025, https://www.belkin.com/p/usb-c-to-usb-c-cable-240w/CAB015bt2MWH.html
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188. All USB-C cables can do PD? : r/GooglePixel – Reddit, осъществен достъп на май 3, 2025, https://www.reddit.com/r/GooglePixel/comments/9nkjls/all_usbc_cables_can_do_pd/
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196. 65W USB-C Fast Charger Fit for HP Elitebook 830 835 840 845 850 855 860 865 645 650 655 640 630 X360 1040 G8 G9 G10 G11 Probook 430 435 440 445 450 455 635 G7 G8 G9 G10 G11 Laptop Power Adapter Cord – Amazon.com, осъществен достъп на май 3, 2025, https://www.amazon.com/Charger-Elitebook-Probook-Laptop-Adapter/dp/B0743B6MLL
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203. OnePlus Warp Charge Type-C To Type-C Cable 100Cm, Compatible With Smartp | eBay, осъществен достъп на май 3, 2025, https://www.ebay.com/itm/204489968494
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Материалът Fast charging: how it works and why it’s important е публикуван за пръв път на Галя и Тони - Галанто.

After years of anticipation and numerous rumors, it’s finally a fact – WiFi 7 is here and ready to transform the way we connect to the internet. For all of us who are fascinated by the magic of wireless technology and fans of radio waves, WiFi 7 brings exciting new features and significant improvements. Get ready to immerse yourself in a world of lightning-fast speeds and unprecedented efficiency!

Why is WiFi 7 so important?

In today’s digital world, where high-definition video streaming, online gaming, and a growing number of smart devices are everyday life, the need for faster and more stable wireless connections is greater than ever. WiFi 7 is here to meet these needs, offering significantly higher speed, lower latency, and greater capacity compared to previous standards.

Imagine: downloading movies in seconds, playing VR games without any lag, and seamlessly working with dozens of devices on one network. WiFi 7 is not just an evolution, but a true revolution in wireless communications.

Technical Dive: What Makes WiFi 7 So Powerful?

For radio amateurs and tech enthusiasts, here’s a closer look at the key technologies behind WiFi 7:

• Multi-Link Operation (MLO): This is one of the most innovative features of WiFi 7. MLO allows devices to use multiple frequency bands (2.4 GHz, 5 GHz, and 6 GHz) simultaneously. This results in:
  • Higher throughput: Combining frequency bands means a larger „channel“ for data.
  • Lower latency: If one frequency band is busy or has interference, the device can seamlessly switch to another, providing a more stable and faster connection.
  • Greater reliability: The connection becomes more resistant to interference and interruptions.
• 320 MHz channels: WiFi 7 doubles the maximum channel width from 160 MHz (with WiFi 6/6E) to 320 MHz. Wider channels mean more data can be transferred per unit of time, resulting in faster speeds.
• 4096-QAM (4K-QAM): Quadrature Amplitude Modulation (QAM) is a method of encoding data over radio waves. WiFi 7 uses 4096-QAM, which allows more bits of information to be transmitted per symbol compared to the 1024-QAM used in WiFi 6. This results in higher efficiency and faster data transfer rates.
• Enhanced Multi-User MIMO (MU-MIMO): WiFi 7 continues to improve MU-MIMO technology, allowing the router to communicate with more devices simultaneously (theoretically up to 16) and with greater efficiency. This is especially important in homes and offices with many connected devices.
• Preamble Puncturing: This feature allows WiFi 7 devices to use available parts of the frequency spectrum even when there is interference in certain subchannels. Instead of avoiding the entire channel, the device can „punch through“ the interference and use the remaining part of the spectrum, resulting in more efficient use of the radio frequencies.

Comparison with previous WiFi standards:

To get a clearer idea of ​​the advantages of WiFi 7, see the following comparison table:

Note: Maximum speeds are theoretical and may vary depending on network conditions, number of connected devices, and other factors.

WiFi 7 vs. Wired Networks: Who’s the Winner?

Despite the significant advances that WiFi 7 brings, wired networks still have their advantages. Here’s a quick comparison:

Conclusion:

• WiFi 7 offers significantly higher speeds and convenience, allowing for flexible connection of multiple devices without cables. It is ideal for situations where mobility and easy network expansion are a priority.
• Wired networks (Ethernet) still provide lower latency and more stable connections, making them the preferred choice for delay-sensitive applications such as online gaming and professional work with large files.

Ultimately, the best choice depends on the user’s specific needs and priorities. Often, combining wireless and wired connections in one network provides the best of both worlds.

What’s next?

Although WiFi 7 is just beginning to enter the market, the future looks extremely exciting. We expect more and more devices – from smartphones and laptops to routers and smart home appliances – to support this new standard. For wireless enthusiasts, WiFi 7 opens up new possibilities for experimenting with higher frequencies and more complex modulation schemes.

WiFi 7 is not just faster WiFi – it is the foundation for the next generation of wireless applications and services. Get ready for a new era of connectivity!

WiFi 7: The wireless revolution is here!

I hope this article was useful and informative for you. Feel free to leave your comment below.

Материалът WiFi 7: The revolution in the wireless world is here! е публикуван за пръв път на Галя и Тони - Галанто.

Making an antenna is a simple job that is described by three activities:

• Cutting iron and cables;
• Pilling, etc.;
• Screws and nuts.

(This is also how you write a book – you press keys in a certain sequence.)

In the Faraday cage of channel 64

Very good fishing!

Why are the large antennas external and „fishing very well“?

(And they also cost quite a bit because they are Western made, most of them.)

1. Because there is a very long piece of iron on them and as such you can’t take it into the kitchen, and for that – outside.
2. You try to raise it as high as possible, because one always wants to climb up – to Everest, to Botev, to Cherni vrah or at least to Kopitoto (the restaurant). If possible by car – ideal.
3. „Finds strong“ because at the highest possible lift, it provides signal reception with better detection of fresnel zones. Thus, the signal has a better intensity than if the antenna is seven to eight meters or more down.
4. A large part of the offered company antennas have an amplifier right on the vibrator and the feeder to the TV goes from there. Infinitely correct solution. However, the amplifier is subjected to all kinds of wonderful outdoor conditions. His life will not be very long.

Why are large TV antenna structures more pleasing to the eye than doing work in the advertised frequency range – for example, from 21-69 channels? Because:

1. If the vibrator has a wave resistance of about 75 ohms for 650 MHz, then the same vibrator (the antenna is the same) for 490 MHz is about 35-40 ohms, and for 818 MHz it is 110-115 ohms. The example with 490 and 818 MHz is a real Sofia broadcast and comes to show that if you read the inscription on the box for a 75 ohm TV antenna, then this is true for the middle of the range or somewhere along it. From here on, the reconciliation and attempts to do so go to …
2. All distances between vibrator, directors and reflector are frequency dependent (specified) and as such the antenna will be directed for one and one or two neighboring frequencies, but for the rest of the frequencies in the range only the vibrator will work as a simple single dipole antenna (and the one with unclear wave resistance). Salvation comes from lifting up.

Yes, I have also made a 7-element antenna, but it was only for 145 MHz and it was a big struggle to set it up. For range, it is simply unthinkable. There are devices with matching stages filled with capacitors and coils for electrical shortening or lengthening. Your TVs are certainly not one of them.

3. Logoperiodic antennas really work in a wider range, but they hardly work with more than two to three elements for the different frequencies, because, alas, the laws of physics apply to them too. For comparison, a well to excellently tuned 3-element Yagi antenna gives about 5-6 decibels of gain. However, if one has a penchant for disobeying laws, one can get from the logperiodic 12 to 18 decibels. If the parliament votes to repeal these laws, then things will fall into place, but they don’t want to!

The main influence on reception is the phenomenon of interference waves, which occurs in all cases when there are ground obstacles and objects (even if they do not block) in the path of signal propagation, such as a block, a house and even an iron barrel for collecting rainwater . I have briefly described this in „Methodology for finding a place for a room „antenna for digitalTV„. It is published and the title is easy to find.

The other main thing is that the cable (feeder) must have a length multiple of half the wavelength (λ) multiplied by the shortening factor and the condition must be met for all frequencies at which television is received – in most places in Bulgaria there are three. What happens if this is not met? An excellent result is obtained (ideal option) or nothing is received regardless of the antenna, clipping or reception of some channels, and the others are bad. Such examples – as many as you want.

The case of feeder length multiple of λ/2 is valid when the arm/arms of the dipole are of length λ/4 (to be precise – 0.253 λ to be 75 ohms). But this dipole is for one frequency and for higher it will be long (ie, non-resonant length) and for lower frequency it will be short – also non-resonant. Then what – when the dipole is longer, the feeder must be shorter for the configuration made in this way, and when the dipole is shorter – the feeder must be longer. When these three cases are nicely „mixed“, at the output of the already made antennao-feeder device must output a signal at the three (or whatever is calculated) frequencies with the maximum possible amplitude of the voltage induced in the antenna. The solution to the problem is easy. It took me personally about two or three months ahead of time.

To receive dirtier signals, a full-wave dipole can be created, i.e. the arms are of length λ/2 and then the feeder should be of length n*λ/2 -(+) λ/4 and not the shortening factor is forgotten. Again, it works according to the above logic – with shorter arms, a longer feeder or vice versa, and all these conditions must be satisfied in one configuration (one antenna-feeder device).

I have personally achieved the following results with my self-made passive (without any amplifiers) antennas (with my wife’s permission, of course!):

• Village Padesh, Blagoevgradsko. This village does not receive over-the-air television, and there were news reports that people were „rioting“ due to being deprived of this option. I made a corresponding device and went there – all three multiplexes came out. God’s work.
• Village Kremenik, Dupnishko, which is located above the Dyakovo dam. Also people don’t watch broadcast TV because of impossibility. The channels from the three multiplexes came out there as well.
• Village Zivkovo, Ikhtimansko. The neighbor of my methodical supervisor in fishing tried the variants of lifting up a large antenna with the assistance of a technical digitization team. The result is a switch to an alternative provider (cable, satellite), accompanied by a certain amount of expletives. At the same time, my fishing guru watches with a passive antenna my craft, which is located in the room.
• Village Beli Iskar, Samokovsko. „Kofti“ place with more than 70 meters of overhang from a land massif in the middle of a 3.5 km route, through which the overhang does not pass even a third Fresnel zone (ie, what is reached from the fifth). There was an external new logoperiodic antenna erected, which, however, did not receive the BNT package, which was received on 722 MHz, and the btv, nova tv and tv7 package on 626 MHz was received with periodic interruptions. After installing an amplifier (amplified at mach) the reception got better. I was not satisfied with the situation. I made some effort and it is now received with a room antenna without an amplifier.
• And I can no longer remember how many more places – the village of Vladimir in its lowest part, Kocherinovo, the village of Gorni Dabnik Plevensko, the village of Varvara (between Tsarevo and Ahtopol) in its low part below the center, etc.

For Sofia and its surroundings, there are also no problems with reception, regardless of whether it is the first or last floor, with a view or on the opposite side to the transmitter, and I show it in a car service (car workshop), which is practically a pure „Faraday cage“ – the whole inside is metal construction with appropriate grounding (all metal columns are in the ground). Reception is on channel 64 – Vest TV.

If you think what has been written so far is incredible, read the article again.

Otherwise, the spread of VHF is „God’s work“!

Материалът Outdoor or indoor antenna? Should we buy or make? е публикуван за пръв път на Галя и Тони - Галанто.